Kolkata served as the capital of India during the British Raj until 1911. Once the centre of modern education, science, culture and politics in India, Kolkata witnessed economic stagnation in the years following India's independence in 1947. However, since the year 2000, an economic rejuvenation has led to a spurt in the city's growth. Like other metropolitan cities of India, Kolkata continues to struggle with urbanisation problems like poverty, pollution and traffic congestion.
Kolkata is noted for its revolutionary history, ranging from the Indian struggle for independence to the leftist and trade union movements. This vibrant city, with a distinct socio-political culture, is considered by many as the Cultural capital of India.
Goa's known history stretches back to the 3rd century BC, when it formed part of the Mauryan Empire.[5] It was later ruled by the Satavahanas of Kolhapur, around two thousand years ago and passed on to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 580 to 750. Over the next few centuries Goa was successively ruled by the Silharas, the Kadambas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani, rulers of Deccan India.[6] The Kadambas, a local Hindu dynasty based at Chandrapura, (present day Chandor - Salcete), laid an indelible mark on the course of Goa's pre-colonial history and culture.
In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. However, the kingdom's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 they were forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After that dynasty crumbled, the area fell to the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur who made Velha Goa their auxiliary capital.
In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first European to set foot in India through a sea route, landing in Calicut (Kozhikode) in Kerala, followed by an arrival in what is now known as Old Goa. Goa, then a term referring to the City of Goa on the southern bank of the River Mandovi, was the largest trading centre on India's western coast. The Portuguese arrived with the intention of setting up a colony and seizing control of the spice trade from other European powers after traditional land routes to India had been closed by the Ottoman Turks. Later, in 1510, Portuguese admiralAfonso de Albuquerque defeated the ruling Bijapur kings with the help of a local ally, Timayya, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in Velha Goa (or Old Goa). The Portuguese intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified enclaves established elsewhere along India's coasts.
Ruins of Fort Aguada in north Goa; one of the defences that the Portuguese built during their reign.
With the imposition of the Inquisition (1560–1812), many of the local residents were forcibly converted to Christianity by missionaries, threatened by punishment or confiscation of land, titles or property.[citation needed] Many converts however retained parts of their Hindu heritage. To escape the Inquisition and harassment, thousands fled the state, settling down in the neighbouring towns of Mangalore and Karwar in Karnataka, and Savantwadi in Maharashtra. With the arrival of the other European powers in India in the 16th century, most Portuguese possessions were surrounded by the British and the Dutch. Goa soon became Portugal's most important possession in India, and was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon In 1843 the capital was moved to Panjim from Velha Goa. By mid-18th century the area under occupation had expanded to most of Goa's present day state limits.
After India gained independence from the British in 1947, Portugal refused to accede to India's demand to relinquish their control of its enclave. Resolution 1541 by the United Nations General Assembly in 1960 noted that Goa was non-self-governing and favoured self determination. Finally, on December 12, 1961, the Indian army with 40,000 troops moved in as part of Operation Vijay. Fighting lasted for twenty-six hours before the Portuguese garrison surrendered. Goa, along with Daman and Diu (enclaves lying to the north of Maharashtra), was made into a centrally administered Union Territory on India. India's takeover of Goa is commemorated on December 19 (Liberation Day). The UN Security Council considered a resolution condemning the invasion which was vetoed by the Soviet Union. Most nations later recognised India's action, and Portugal recognised it after the Carnation Revolution in 1974. On May 30, 1987, the Union Territory was split, and Goa was elevated as India's twenty-fifth state, with Daman and Diu remaining Union Territories.
Delhi, the capital of India, is a monumental city. Many rulers have made it their home and it shows. The place is littered with countless gems of history combined with the ravages of modern times, a huge population, and pollution of all sorts. Amongst the highlights are the Moghul buildings of Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Humayun's Tomb, Safdarjung's Tomb, Nizzamudin; the sprawling Lodhi gardens; Hindu shrines such as the Birla Temple; British remains: The Connaught Place shopping area and Rajpath; the Qutab Minar tower and Rajghat, Gandhi's tomb. The omnipresent scooters (3 wheelers) and taxis will transport you to all the sights for modest fees. Beware of the hot summer and the following monsoon rains.
Jama Masjid, India's largest Mosque, built by Akbar, one of the great Moghul Emperors. You can climb up the left tower for a nice view
View from Jama Masjid tower
View from Jama Masjid tower onto the chaos of Old Delhi
View from Jama Masjid tower onto the enormous courtyard
In the Red Fort
The Muslim shrine of Nizzamudin Chisti, a saint who died in 1325, has a very strange atmosphere. The narrow paths leading to the shrine are paved with flower-garland hawkers. Surprisingly, it's no problem to take a picture here
This is one of the platforms of Old Delhi railway station. There are usually lots of people with amusing pieces of household belongings milling around in India's railway stations. The Indian Railways is the world's largest employer..
The iron pillar at Qutab Minar is ancient and strangely enough does not rust. Your wish will supposedly come true if you can encircle it with your arms with your back to it
Fruit sellers in one of the narrow alleys of Old Delhi
Being driven around on a bicycle rickshaw through the chaotic alleys of Old Delhi is quite an adventure!
Birla temple complex. The Birlas are a rich industrial family and philanthropists
Snake charmers outside Safdarjung's Tomb. They demanded a horrendous fee after I'd taken their picture, but I gave them a more reasonable sum
The front of Birla Temple. Since the whole complex can only be toured barefoot, everyone has to take off their shoes outside
A dragon in the park behind Birla temple. This passer-by kid was determined to be on the picture
Fountains at the back of Birla temple
Sikh temple in Old Delhi
Intricate screen carved out of marble in Old Delhi's Red Fort
Looking out at the market crowd on one side of Red Fort. In the foreground (in black) is a levitator in the process of "floating on air", you can see his head above the black sheets
Emperor Safdarjung's Tomb, one of the last Moguls
Emperor Humayun's tomb, one of the first Moguls. Aesthetically, this is one of my favourite Mogul tombs. Noblemen and other members of the court are buried in the little rooms you see at the base of the tomb. Since Muslims must bury their dead under the ground, the extravagant 'tomb' of the emperor inside the mausoleum is a cenotaph: the actual tomb is at the centre of the monument at ground level
The Qutab Minar, 72m high and built by Qutabuddin, on the outskirts of Delhi dates from the 12th century. Initially, it was possible to climb the spiral staircase right to the top but access was restricted to the 1st platform due to dramatic suicides. Now the tower is completely closed due to a tragic accident in the stairwell involving schoolchildren
Alai Minar: A rival started building a tower larger and twice as tall as the Qutab Minar nearby to it. It didn't get completed after his death, however
